Magna Grecia: Greek colonization of Sicily - Part II

Introduction
After traveling through Southern Italy to explore the region’s Greek legacy, I decided to write a three-part series on Magna Graecia, or “Greater Greece.” I am not a historian, but this project lets me connect my travels with the history of a remarkable island that flourished between roughly 800 and 200 BCE as a Greek colony. This second article is about Sicily, where the history of Magna Grecia becomes more complex because of Phoenician influence and the rise of Carthage in the central Mediterranean.
Beginning in the eighth century BCE, Greek settlers crossed the Ionian Sea for more than 250 years, driven by population pressure, land shortages, internal conflict, and trade. Their colonies developed as independent coastal city-states. Plato famously compared Greek settlements around the sea to “frogs around a pond,” while Cicero described them as a fringe along non-Greek lands. With familiar climates and fertile soils, Southern Italy and Sicily became major centers of Greek colonization, preserving Hellenic traditions and contributing lasting achievements in art, literature, philosophy, and science. The Oracle of Delphi also played a key role by providing the divine sanction believed necessary to found new settlements, or apoikiai.

Settlers came from across the Greek world, including the Peloponnese, Athens, Thebes, Euboea, the Aegean islands, Crete, and Asia Minor. They brought their language, religion, customs, and civic ideals. Over time, Magna Graecia preserved core Hellenic traditions while adapting to local conditions and influences. See the attached table for details on each city’s foundation.
Greek communities in Sicily largely retained the customs of their mother cities, including language, religion, architecture, and ties to the wider Greek cultural world. They built monumental sites such as the Valley of the Temples in Agrigento and made Syracuse a major Mediterranean power. Sicily also produced major scientific and cultural achievements, from Archimedes’ work in physics to enduring contributions to theater and philosophy.
Major Greek settlements in Sicily included Syracuse, Gela, Akragas, Naxos, Selinus, Himera, and Catana.
Although politically independent, these colonies remained linked to their mother cities through culture, trade, and regular contact. They also interacted closely with local Italic and Sicilian peoples. Over time, Magna Graecia developed a distinctive identity that blended Greek traditions with regional influences and became a major Mediterranean center of commerce, religion, politics, art, and architecture.

Pre-Greek Sicily
Long before Greeks settled the Sicilian coast, the island was home to several indigenous peoples, most notably the Sicanians, Sicels, and Elymians. According to Thucydides the Sicanians were the earliest historically documented inhabitants and lived mainly in central and western Sicily. Some modern scholars have suggested Iberian or North African origins. The Sicels later migrated from the Italian mainland, occupied the eastern plains, and pushed the Sicanians west and south. The Elymians, concentrated in northwestern Sicily, are often described as having mixed indigenous, Mycenaean, or Anatolian influences. These pre-Greek societies were sophisticated: they practiced advanced agriculture, developed proto-urban centers such as Morgantina and Pantalica, and traded with Phoenicians and Minoans. I will discuss my visits to Morgantina, Pantalica, and the Elymian city of Segesta later in the series.
At the same time, Phoenicians established western trading outposts such as Motya and Panormus, modern Palermo. While they resisted Greek territorial expansion, native communities in eastern and central Sicily gradually underwent deep Hellenization. Through centuries of trade, conflict, and cultural exchange, the Sicels and Sicanians adopted Greek architectural forms, minted Greek-style coinage, and incorporated Greek language and religion into their traditions. These changes helped make Sicily a vital part of the wider Hellenic world.
The Phoenicians, a Semitic people from the region of present-day Lebanon, were primarily a maritime power. Rather than settling Sicily on a large scale, they founded strategic trading bases and built a powerful empire centered on Carthage, near present-day Tunis.
My Travels Through Sicily
Messina: Gateway to Greek Sicily
On my second trip to Sicily, I visited many of the island’s Magna Graecia cities and archaeological sites. After crossing the Strait of Messina from Reggio Calabria, I arrived in Messina, a beautiful city founded by Greek settlers as Zancle in 757 BCE. Around 493 BCE, it was renamed Messana in honor of settlers from Messenia in the Peloponnese and from Samos. Strategically located across the strait from mainland Italy, Messina became an important trading and political hub linking Magna Graecia with the wider Mediterranean world. Repeated destruction over the centuries, however, has left relatively little visible evidence of its Greek past.
Naxos and Taormina: Sicily’s First Greek Colony and Its Legacy
My next stop was Taormina, one of Sicily’s most celebrated destinations. Enroute, I visited Naxos, about twenty minutes away. Founded by Chalcidian settlers in 734 BCE, Naxos was the first permanent Greek colony in Sicily and played a key role in spreading Hellenic culture across the island. Although it was destroyed by the tyrant of Syracuse in 403 BCE, the ruins at modern Giardini Naxos still preserve important evidence of early Magna Graecia urban planning and architecture. After Naxos fell, native Siculian communities on nearby Mount Taurus welcomed its survivors, who founded Tauromenion, later known as Taormina. The new city adopted the features of a Greek colony, including an agora, an acropolis, and an ancient theater. The Ancient Theatre of Taormina, originally carved into Mount Tauro by the Greeks in the third century BCE, remains one of Sicily’s most striking monuments. The Romans later expanded and remodeled it for gladiatorial games and animal hunts.
]
Catania: A Detour Around Mount Etna
On both of my trips, I avoided driving into Catania, which lies between Taormina and Siracusa. The traffic was so difficult that my attempt to enter the city proved futile. Even so, Catania has deep Greek roots: it was founded in the eighth century BCE by Chalcidian settlers. Because of its proximity to Mount Etna, the city was destroyed several times, and most of the surviving ruins date from the Roman period rather than the Greek era.
Syracuse: The Great Power of Greek Sicily
I reached Siracusa with great excitement. Few places capture the dramatic history of Magna Graecia as vividly as Syracuse. Founded in 734 BCE by Greek colonists from Corinth, Syracuse grew into one of the most powerful and splendid metropolises of the ancient world. Cicero later praised it as “the greatest Greek city and the most beautiful of them all.” It was also the birthplace of Archimedes and, over time, came under Roman, Byzantine, and Arab rule.By the fifth century BCE, Syracuse had become a major Greek power, rivaling Athens in military strength, architecture, and intellectual life. It flourished as a center of philosophy, science, theater, and the arts, demonstrating that Greek culture thrived far beyond its Aegean heartland.
Under Gelon, Syracuse achieved a defining victory over the Carthaginians at the Battle of Himera in 480 BCE. This triumph established Syracuse as the leading Greek city in the western Mediterranean. Using wealth seized from Carthage, Gelon launched an ambitious building program that included temples, public buildings, and imposing city walls. One of his most notable projects was the Temple of Athena, later incorporated into the Cathedral of Syracuse.
Perhaps the most celebrated figure associated with Syracuse was Archimedes (287–212 BCE), widely regarded as one of ancient Greece’s greatest mathematicians and inventors. His work laid foundations in mathematics, anticipated ideas later developed in calculus and included a remarkably accurate calculation of pi. Archimedes also made major advances in physics, especially in hydrostatics and mechanics. His most famous discovery, the principle of buoyancy, arose from a practical problem: determining whether a crown commissioned by Hieron II was made of pure gold. According to legend, Archimedes realized while bathing that displaced water could reveal volume, prompting his famous exclamation, “Eureka!” The principle he formulated remains fundamental to science today.
Archimedes was not merely a theorist; he also applied his ingenuity to the defense of Syracuse. During the Roman siege of 213–212 BCE, he designed innovative war machines, including catapults and the “Claw of Archimedes,” which was said to lift and capsize enemy ships. A long-standing but debated tradition also claims that he used mirrors to focus sunlight and set Roman vessels aflame. Despite these efforts, Syracuse fell to Rome in 212 BCE. Archimedes was killed during the city’s capture, despite orders from Marcus Claudius Marcellus that he be spared. His death marked both the loss of a brilliant mind and the end of Syracuse’s independence as a Greek city-state. While there are several places attributed to his burial place on such location is supposed to be inside the archeological park. I had photographed this location a decade ago but now the entire area has been shut down.
]

Gela and Agrigento: Power, Wealth, and the Valley of the Temples
Agrigento was my next major stop, especially because of the UNESCO-listed Valley of the Temples. While little remains of ancient Gela beyond modest ruins and an impressive museum, Agrigento more than compensates with its extraordinary beauty. Gela and Agrigento were among the most powerful Greek colonies in ancient Sicily. Rhodian and Cretan colonists founded Gela around 688 BCE along the island’s southern coast. As Gela grew, its population sought further expansion. In 580 BCE, settlers from Gela joined new Rhodian immigrants to found Akragas, later renamed Agrigento by the Romans. Situated on a defensible plateau between two rivers, Akragas quickly rivaled its mother city in wealth and influence. Both cities reached their cultural and political height under powerful tyrants during the fifth century BCE. Cleander and Hippocrates expanded Gela’s territory, establishing it as a dominant military force. Hippocrates’ successor, Gelon, captured Syracuse in 485 BCE, moved his court there, transferred half of Gela’s population, and shifted the center of power eastward.
Agrigento experienced its golden age under the tyrant Theron, who ruled from 488 to 473 BCE. Allied with Gelon of Syracuse, Theron helped defeat the Carthaginians at the Battle of Himera in 480 BCE.( read the section on Himera later in the article)
That victory brought immense wealth and thousands of enslaved laborers to Agrigento. Theron used these resources to launch a massive building program, including the temples that still define the site today. During this era, Agrigento became a renowned center of art and philosophy and was home to the pre-Socratic philosopher Empedocles. The Valley of the Temples deserves special attention. Spanning roughly 1,300 hectares, the archaeological park protects the monumental remains of ancient Akragas, founded around 581 BCE and once among the most prosperous cities in the Mediterranean basin.

The park features a magnificent row of seven main temples built in the Doric style during the sixth and fifth centuries BCE. The crown jewel is the Temple of Concordia, built around 430 BCE and considered one of the best-preserved Greek temples in the world, largely because it was converted into a Christian Basilica in the sixth century CE. Nearby, the Temple of Juno still bears dark fire scars from the Carthaginian attack of 406 BCE, while the Temple of Hercules, the oldest on the ridge, displays eight re-erected columns.
Other significant ruins include the colossal Temple of Olympian Zeus, once among the largest temples of antiquity, and the iconic four columns of the Temple of Castor and Pollux, now a modern symbol of Agrigento. Surrounded by ancient olive trees, deep aqueducts, and the lush Garden of Kolymbetra, the site remains a breathtaking testament to classical civilization.

Carthaginian Destruction and Roman Rule
The prosperity of Gela and Agrigento collapsed in the late fifth century BCE, when Carthage launched a devastating invasion of Sicily to counter Greek expansion. Carthaginian forces besieged and sacked Agrigento in 406 BCE. The population fled, and the grand temples were burned. Gela met the same fate the following year, in 405 BCE. Both cities were later rebuilt but never fully recovered their former glory. Gela was ultimately destroyed in 282 BCE, when the tyrant Phintias of Agrigento razed the city and relocated its remaining inhabitants to a new settlement named Phintias, modern Licata.
During the Punic Wars, Agrigento became a battleground between Rome and Carthage. The Romans captured the city in 210 BCE and renamed it Agrigentum. Under Roman rule, it functioned as a stable agricultural and sulfur-mining hub.
Segesta and Selinunte: Rivalry on the Western Frontier
These two sites are among my favorites in Sicily because of their fascinating history. Founded by the indigenous Elymians in northwestern Sicily, Segesta became a major ancient city known for its deep Hellenization, long rivalry with neighboring Selinus, and exceptionally well-preserved monuments. The centuries-long conflict between Greek Selinunte and indigenous Segesta shaped the geopolitics of western Sicily, eventually drawing in Athens and Carthage before both cities were absorbed into the Roman world.
Selinunte: The Grand Greek Powerhouse
Founded around 650 BCE by Greek colonists from Megara Hyblaea, Selinunte, ancient Selinus, grew into one of the most prosperous cities in Magna Graecia. Known for its vast and carefully planned urban layout, the city took its name from selinon, the wild celery that grew across the surrounding landscape. Its wealth came from fertile farmland and lucrative trade, which funded the construction of massive temples on the acropolis and eastern hills. Selinunte is one of the most important archaeological sites from the Greek period in Italy .The city was famous throughout the ancient world for its rich farmland and monumental temples. It prospered from the second half of the seventh century BCE through the mid-third century BCE, and its public spaces, temples, fortifications, and houses remain remarkably well preserved.

Segesta: The Enigmatic Elymian Center
Segesta, ancient Egesta, was the chief city of the Elymians, an indigenous Sicilian people who claimed Trojan descent. Although culturally distinct from the Greeks, the Segestans deeply assimilated Greek culture and built a monumental Doric temple in the late fifth century BCE. Unlike Selinunte, Segesta relied heavily on diplomacy to maintain its independence against larger neighbors. I was surprised that this once-isolated ruin, which previously had no gates or official presence, has become a major destination over the past ten years, complete with the features of a major archaeological park, including restaurants and bookshops.
For centuries, Segesta was locked in territorial disputes with the neighboring Greek colony of Selinus, modern Selinunte. Seeking an advantage, Segesta formed a pivotal alliance with Athens in 458 BCE. This relationship ultimately helped trigger the ill-fated Athenian Expedition to Sicily in 415 BCE, when Athens intervened under the pretext of defending Segesta. After the failure of the Athenian expedition, Segesta allied with Carthage in 405 BCE to fend off Greek pressure. The city then endured a turbulent period, including a notorious sack in 307 BCE by the Syracusan tyrant Agathocles, who reportedly killed many of the city’s men by throwing them into a deep ravine. At the beginning of the First Punic War, Segesta aligned with Rome in 263 BCE. Claiming shared Trojan ancestry, Rome granted Segesta preferential status and exempted it from taxes. The city remained free and prosperous during the early Roman Republic, though it gradually lost economic and political significance in the centuries that followed.

Morgantina: A Sicel-Greek City
Morgantina, located in east-central Sicily, began as an indigenous Sicel village. By the sixth century BCE, Greek colonists had integrated with the native population, transforming the settlement into a thriving urban center with a distinct Hellenic culture and infrastructure. The ancient city followed a classic layout, with monumental lower and upper agoras, an ekklesiasterion, or assembly hall, and a grand Greek theater that could seat up to 5,000 spectators. During the fourth and third centuries BCE, under the patronage of the Syracusan king Hieron II, Morgantina reached the height of its prosperity. The city had advanced civic amenities, including innovative domed bathhouses and luxurious hillside estates. It also housed sanctuaries dedicated to deities such as Demeter and Kore. After the death of Hieron II, Morgantina faced a turbulent fate during the Punic Wars. The city briefly defected from Rome to Carthage, which led to its conquest by Roman forces in 211 BCE.

Sicily: A Battleground for Many Wars
Sicily’s strategic position in the Mediterranean made it a central battleground for overlapping conflicts among the Greeks, Carthaginians, and Roman Republic from 800 BCE to 100 BCE. The island experienced successive waves of warfare driven by colonization, imperial ambition, and internal uprisings.
Key conflicts during this era include:
• The Greco-Punic Wars (580–265 BCE): A prolonged series of wars between the Greek city-states, primarily Syracuse, and Carthage for control of the island. Famous confrontations included the First Battle of Himera in 480 BCE, which checked Carthaginian expansion, and the Sicilian Expedition of 415–413 BCE, in which Syracuse decisively defeated an invading Athenian force. The Second Battle of Himera in 409 BCE was a devastating Greco-Carthaginian conflict fought to avenge Carthage’s defeat there in 480 BCE. Led by Hannibal Mago, the Carthaginian army besieged and destroyed Himera, permanently erasing the city from the map.
• The First Punic War (264–241 BCE): The first major war between the Roman Republic and Carthage was triggered by a dispute over the Sicilian city of Messina. It ended in a hard-fought Roman victory, with the Battle of the Aegates in 241 BCE, off the western coast of Sicily, bringing Carthaginian dominance to an end.
• The Second Punic War (218–201 BCE): After Carthage attempted to regain influence, Rome invaded Sicily. The pivotal Siege of Syracuse in 213–212 BCE ended with the Roman capture of the city after they overcame defensive machines designed by Archimedes, cementing Roman control over the island.
At this point, I must discuss the ancient city of Himera, located between Palermo and Messina. The two Battles of Himera had enormous consequences for Sicily’s broader well-being. Ancient Sicily, rich in resources and strategically located, was home to both Greek and Carthaginian colonies, which coexisted peacefully for a long time. However, when Terillus, the tyrant of Himera, was ousted by his own people in 483 BCE, he called on his Carthaginian allies to help him retake the city.
Three years later, the Carthaginian general Hamilcar Mago sailed from North Africa to Himera with an expeditionary force that Herodotus estimated at more than 300,000 soldiers, though modern historians place the figure closer to 20,000. Cavalry and infantry from two neighboring Greek Sicilian city-states, Syracuse and Agrigento, came to Himera’s aid. Hamilcar’s troops were routed, and his ships were set ablaze. When all seemed lost, the general is said to have killed himself by leaping into a pyre. The defeat at Himera crippled Carthaginian power in Sicily for nearly seven decades, ushering in an era of peace, wealth, and cultural flourishing for the Sicilian Greeks.
In 409 BCE, Hamilcar’s grandson, Hannibal Mago, returned to settle the score in the Second Battle of Himera. This time, the Greek army consisted mainly of Himera’s own citizens, with few reinforcements. The Greeks were defeated, and the city was razed.
The graves and western necropolis at Himera were discovered in 2009 during construction of a rail line connecting Palermo and Messina. The site has since yielded remains from more than 10,000 burials from the second Battle of Himera. For archaeologists, one of the clearest indicators of a mercenary, whether foreign or local, is burial in a communal grave.

Conclusion:
In the eighth century BCE, adventurous settlers from mainland Greece arrived on Sicily’s shores. Seeking new land and opportunity, they established thriving coastal city-states, including Syracuse and Akragas. By blending Hellenic culture with local populations, the island became a powerful, prosperous, and culturally rich anchor of Magna Graecia.
These colonies quickly developed into major centers of trade and innovation. Their fertile agricultural lands and strategic Mediterranean ports created unprecedented wealth. Syracuse, a leading Corinthian colony, grew into one of the largest and most formidable cities in the entire Greek world. In these bustling urban environments, foundational arts, mathematics, and philosophy flourished.
However, this prosperity provoked fierce geopolitical rivalries. The Greeks repeatedly fought the Carthaginian Empire, which also sought dominance over the island. While Sicilian tyrants such as Dionysius I successfully expanded their territories, prolonged wars drained the region. Internal conflicts among rival Greek city-states further weakened their collective military strength.
Eventually, this golden age succumbed to the rising military dominance of the Roman Republic. During the Punic Wars, Sicily became a brutal battleground between Rome and Carthage. Following the prolonged Siege of Syracuse in 212 BCE, the island was absorbed into Roman territory.
Although the era of independent Greek city-states faded, the Hellenic legacy endured. Rome absorbed the architectural, philosophical, and legal advancements of Magna Graecia. Today, the breathtaking ruins of the Valley of Temples still stand as monumental testaments to this vibrant civilization.
The End
[email protected]

Gallery: